Judaism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Judaism - Research Paper Example Judaism is the foremost among the three Abrahamic faiths including Christianity and Islam. Most of the Jews around the world reside in Israel or USA according to The Jewish People Polcy Planning Institute. Back in 2001 half of UK’s population claimed to be Jewish as well. What concerns the scholars of religion and theology the most is the original teachings of the religion founded by Moses. For the Jews, however, their history begins from Abraham (BBC 2012). Jews believe in one God and Torah as their Holy Scripture. Theirs is an oral law by tradition and the interpretation of the laws is called â€Å"halakhah†. Their spiritual mentors are known as Rabbis and their place of worship is the Synagogue. One of the most tragic events in the Jewish history took place at the time of the Holocaust in which nearly six million Jews were killed by Nazis on Hitler’s command. This gave rise to a lot of hatred and grudge against the Christians and many Jews fought to live for t heir rights dying on the way. Addressed as â€Å"Children of Israel† in the Holy Scriptures who traveled from Sumer (near Babylon) to Egypt with Prophet Abraham in around 1700 BC and from there to Canaan with Prophet Moses around 1200 BC, united under Saul then David then Solomon around 900 BC, fell captive to Assyrians in 722 BC and later to Chaldeans in 587 BC only to fall victim of the enchanting Hellenistic culture during Alexander’s reign along with the Greco-Roman civilization (Miller et al 136). The Scriptures refer to them as the superior race, fallen in the hands of Satan despite all the privileges it received from their God, Yahweh. The Kabbala, according to a Jewish historian, Faber d’Olivet, has its roots in the Ancient Egypt (d’Olivet 28). History tells that during 1200 BC and 1000 BC people living in the Western end of the Fertile Crescent and in Western Asia, called the northern portion Phoenicia and Lydia, while the southern section was kn own as Canaan and later Israel and then Palestine. Today, the region that is along and near the Mediterranean Sea forms the nations of Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and portion of Egypt and Turkey. The early writing system had started and evolved from Egypt and Mesopotamia. However the Phoenicians worked on developing the alphabets for future model of Western alphabets. They were the first great sea traders of the world. During the same time Greek City-States were flourishing. While the Phoenicians did not believe in after life and sometimes sacrificed their own children to win favor from the many Gods they worshiped, Egyptians worshiped the Sun as well as the Moon, attributing to their Gods the characteristics of animals and humans. They thought Pharaoh was the representative of these Gods. On the other hand the Greeks attributed to their Gods and Goddesses the attributes of humans because they considered them superior beings and practiced rituals to win favor from them. They als o believed that the priests and priestesses were mediums of communication of the Gods at oracles which were sanctuaries especially meant for them. This was done in the form of question and answer pertaining to the future. They were later conquered by Romans, who like Greeks were very particular about the ritual performance. Early Romans believed that spirits inhabited everything. Some of these were attached to the home which included the ancestral spirits called the â€Å"

Adult Learning Essay Example for Free

Adult Learning Essay Adult learning is a complex subject that in recent years has become more of a necessity than a personal pursuit. There are three factors present in the American society today that necessitate the need for adult learning. These factors are: Dramatic changes in demographics, the global economy, and technology. (5) Demographics are concerned with growth and development of adult learners and emerging groups of learners with special needs. There are more adults in our society than ever before and the population will continue to age and increase in the number of older adults. This fact along with the growing cultural and ethnic diversity existing in America today, although, provides many benefits for the society by mixing talents from many lands, but it also, requires a certain amount of familiarization and education to minimize the risks involved by diversification. The second factor influencing the need for adult learning is the global economy. The birth of global interdependent economy has led to changing work practices, which require different kinds of preparation and training. The emphasis has been shifted to improved product and service quality, having more educated workers with more responsibility and stronger team work. This has resulted in control of education shifting more to business. More and more companies opt to provide work place literacy programs, training and development packages, and encouraging their employees to learn how to learn, to keep up with a constantly changing global service based economy. Ethnic make up and increased number of women in the work force are also contributing factors for adult learning. (5) The third factor that should be considered is the explosion in the information technology sector. With the development and advancement of computers within the last decade or two, an environment has been created in which the settings for a formal training session, has been outdated. The society is experiencing an increase in mental ability which is growing drastically with the availability of horizontal networks and the advancement of telecommunications. Information is rapidly distributed and easily available and accessible. This causes for efficient use of information. This allows the learner to have better access with those who teach information access skills, it helps the development of higher levels of thinking skills while at the same time, it creates a comfortable environment for the educators. Although consideration must be given to the ethical implication of the information access creates. (1) The three factors above have become intertwined forces. Demographics, the global economy, and technology have come together in adult education in the blurring of the field’s content and delivery mechanisms, dividing up the setting for adult education into formal, non-formal and informal activities. Blurring is also occurring in higher education sector where older students are now making up for about 50 percent of the college attendees, and finally, a blurring of content and delivery is found in such popular slogans as â€Å"workplace literacy† and â€Å"critical thinking. † which focuses on development of skills needed to be productive and informed members of a highly technical society. There are three types of opportunities in which learning occurs for adult: Formal institutional setting, non-formal setting and informal setting. For most adult, learning in adulthood brings to mind a classroom setting. Yet when we ask these same adult about what they have learned informally over the last year, they typically respond with descriptions of learning activities outside these formal settings. However, the use of technology has increase the delivery of learning programs, expanding our picture of learning in an informal setting. Informal learning occurs most often in ones natural setting in which we learn things from our daily experiences. On the other hand, non-formal settings have been used most often to describe learning opportunities outside the formal educational setting that complement the needs of underserved adults such as churches. Knowing why some adults participate in adult education does not tell us why many don’t . The two often cited reasons for non participation are lack of time and money. There is no single theory or model that can explain or predict participation in adults education . The main reasons most commonly used are cite job-related motives, achieving some other personal goal, sake of the activity itself, social relationship (making a new friend), external expectation (complying with the wishes) and cognitive interest engaged for sake of learning itself. Nonparticipation has been from the perspective of the individual’s motivation, attitudes, beliefs, and so on .However they may be social factors that influence the decision . This can also be family-related. (2) Whatever the stated or actual purposes of a learning activity, adult education is usually a form of social intervention that often begins with a problem that needs to be solved . What is seen as problematic depends on one’s values, social position, and perspective. The purpose of adult education today for which there is public support, clusters around the ability of the United States to sustain a competitive edge in the global economy. Purpose of adult education is to improve the self and to improve society. In America all individuals have access and the opportunity to benefit through education. (4) In total the answer to the question of who benefits is clear: It is those who have benefited in the past, and those who have the â€Å"cultural capital†. Those most likely to be the recipients of the dominant cultures are those who, as a result of birth and upbringing, have already acquired the cultural capital to receive it and to take advantage of opportunities. Everyone can improve his/her life situation through learning, every adult can choose to participate in any adult learning activity . There are other reason that certain adults have more access to learning opportunities than other adult . Where one happens to live, what color, age, or sex one happens to be, what one does for a living, all contribute to the participation pattern in adult education (framework) by way of illustrating how these framework conditions can determine who is more likely to benefit from adult learning opportunities. Where and how one lives makes a difference. (3) Individual educators and individual learners are likely to be fairly explicit about why they are engaged in a particular learning activity. Such easily identified objectives are usually aligned with the content of the activity. Underlying many of the state purposes of adult education in America is the assumption that the idea of a society must be maintained, and that education is one way to do this. Individualism, Independence, and a protestant-capitalist work ethic frame the actual provision of adult education in America. (1) Several things are known about self-directed learning: (a) Individual learners can become empowered to take increasingly more responsibility for various decisions associated with the learning endeavor; (b) Self-direction is best viewed as a continuum or characteristic that  exists to some degree in every person and learning situation; (c) Self-direction does not necessarily mean all learning will take place in isolation from others; (d) Self-directed learners appear able to transfer learning, in terms of both knowledge and study skill, from one situation to another; (e) self-directed study can involve various activities and resources, such as self-guided reading, participation in study groups, internships, electronic dialogues, and reflective writing activities; (f) Effective roles for teachers in self-directed learning are possible, such as dialogue with learners, securing resources, evaluating outcomes, and promoting critical thinking. (g) Some educational institutions are finding ways to support self-directed study through open-learning programs, individualized study options, non-traditional course offerings, and other innovative programs. ( 1) self –directed learning as a process of learning , in which people take the primary initiative for planning, carrying out, and evaluating their own learning experiences, has received a great deal of attention in the literature. This form of learning can take place in both inside and outside institutionally based learning programs. (2) Staff development that improves the learning of all students applies knowledge about human learning and change. No matter the age at which it occurs, human learning is based on a common set of principles. While adults have more life experience to draw on than younger learners and are often clearer about what they want to learn and why it is important, the means by which the learning occurs is remarkably similar. Consequently, it is important that the learning methods used in professional development mirror as closely as possible the methods teachers are expected to use with their students. It is essential that staff development assist educators in moving beyond comprehension of the surface features of a new idea or innovation to a fuller and more complete understanding of its purposes, critical attributes, meaning, and connection to other approaches. To improve student achievement, adult learning under most circumstances must promote deep understanding of a topic and provide many opportunities for teachers and administrators to practice new skills with feedback on their performance until those skills become automatic and habitual. Such deeper understanding typically requires a number of opportunities to interact with the idea or procedure through active learning processes that promote reflection such as discussion and dialogue, writing, demonstrations, practice with feedback, and group problem solving. Because people have different learning styles and strengths, professional development must include opportunities to see, hear, and do various actions in relation to the content. It is also important those educators are able to learn alone and with others and, whenever possible, have choices among learning activities. Another important dimension of adult engagement in change processes is the feelings that such change often evokes in individuals. Even under the best of circumstances, pressure for change, no matter what its source, may produce feelings of anxiety, fear, and anger. Such feelings are most effectively addressed through skillful listening and problem solving within a respectful and trusting school culture. It is helpful for educational leaders to appreciate that, to some degree, such feelings are natural and an inevitable part of the change process. Such appreciation is aided when leaders have a deep understanding of the change literature, particularly the Concerns- Based Adoption Model, and are able to apply its insights when planning and implementing new practices in schools. A third dimension of change is the life stage of individuals engaged in the change process. While recognition of life stage differences would not alter expectations for performance, it may affect an individuals availability and interest in additional work responsibilities during different phases of his or her life. Recognition of life stage differences may also help staff development leaders in tapping educators strengths and talents, such as asking skillful veteran teachers to serve as mentors or coaches for their peers. Electronic forms of learning may prove particularly helpful in providing alternatives that respond to differences in learning styles and availability due to life stage issues. Staff development content may be accessed via the Internet or other forms of distance technology that will enable learning throughout the day in various settings using media that appeals to different learning preferences. (6) References: 1-What is self directed learning? Http://home. twcny. rr. com/hiemstra/sdlhdbk. html 2-Read write plus, DFES, Quality and Training Http://www. dfes. gov. uk/readwriteplus/quality 3-Finding from a national survey of States Directors of Adult Http://www. ncsall. net/fileadmin/resources/reasearch/rep9. pdf 4-Acve-Race and Gender in Adult Education Http://www. calpro-online. org/ERIC/docgen. asp? tbl=tiaID=92 5-How adults learn: Ageless learner Http://www. agelesslearner. com/intros/adultlearning. html 6-NSDC-Standards: About the Standards-Learning Http://www. nsdc. org/standards/learning. cfm.

Ethosomal Formulation as a Carrier for Transdermal Delivery

Ethosomal Formulation as a Carrier for Transdermal Delivery ABSTRACT: The aim of present work was to develop, characterisation, of stable ethosomal formulation as a carrier for transdermal delivery of paroxetine hydrochloride. To prepare this ethosome different concentration of soya lecithin and ethanol was taken. Vesicular size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, entrapment effiency were determined by photon correlation spectroscopy and ultracentrifugation techniques. The intro permeation study across human cadaver skin was done. Stability study was done on optimised F2 formulation. Vesicle size decrease as increase in the concentration of ethanol. Entrapment efficiency increase with increase in concentration of soya lecithin. The ethosome exhibit entrapment effiency of 40-64%. Invitro permeation study across human skin ethosome F2formulation showed higher transdermal flux 26.39% µg/cm2/hr. Release mechanism of Invitro permeation shows zero order drug release from formulation. In vivo pharmacodyanamic study F2 formulation showed significant immob ility as compare to controlled group. Stability study result revealed no significant change found in size distribution was found for 90days. Our result indicates that the developed ethosomal system may be potential and safe to delivery paroxetine hydrochloride through transdermal deliverys. INTRODUCTION: In recent years the attraction of lipid vesicle use in delivery system for skin treatment is increasing (1, 2). Paroxetine hydrochloride (PXH) is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. Commonly available in tablets and capsule dosage form, but oral administration have numbers of side effects as well as it undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism. Variation in plasma concentration and long term therapy leads to severe side effects (3). To overcome these difficulties such as extensive hepatic first pass metabolism transdermal delivery is beneficial (4). The useful of transdermal delivery has been proved for some antidepressants (5,6). It is previously reported that significant increase delivery of drugs across the skin would be done by using an ethosomes as novel permeation enhancing carrier (7-10). Composition of ethosomes system mainly contains phospholipids, ethanol and water (12). Solubility and high encapsulation efficiency values for large range of lipophilic drugs can be obtain due to presence of ethanol. Ethanol may provide vesicles with soft flexible characteristics, which allow them to penetrate more simply into the deeper layers of the skin (13). The present aim focuses on the preparation and characterization of ethosomal formulation for PXH transdermal delivery. The aim of present study was to develop stable ethosomes carrier for transdermal delivery of PXH. The effect of ethanol and soya lecithin on the permeation of PXH through the human skin was evaluated. Material and method: Material: Soya lecithin was purchased from Research Lab Mumbai. Ethanol was purchased from Loba chemical Mumbai. Cholesterol was purchased from Research Lab Fine Chem Industries, Mumbai. PEG-400 was purchased from Dipa Laboratory Chemicals. All materials and solvents used in this study are of analytical grade. Preparation of ethosomes: Soya lecithin and PXH, were dissolved in ethanol. Double distilled water was added slowly with a fine stream in above ethanol dispersion with constant mixing at 700 rpm on magnetic stirrer, in a well-sealed glass container. Mixing was continued for an additional 5 min. The system was kept at 300C throughout the preparation and was then left to cool at room temperature. (7, 8) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISATION OF ETHOSOME: Vesicles size distribution, polydispersity index and zeta potential The vesicle size distribution, polydispersity index and zeta potential of vesicles was determined using photon correlation spectroscopy (Beckmann counter, Delsa Nano, USA). Formulation were diluted by 1/4th distilled water before measurement and measured three times at scattering angle of 900. The polydispersity index (PI) was used as a measurement of the width of the size distribution. PI less than 0.4 indicates a homogenous and monodisperse population. Zeta potential was measured as the particle electrophoretic mobility means of laser microelectrophoresis in a thermostated cell. Entrapment efficiency (EE) The entrapment capacity of PXH by ethosomal vesicles was determined by ultracentrifugation. Formulations were kept overnight at 4 micro-centrifuge (Tarsons) 12000 rpm for 30 min. The supernatant was removed and drug amount was determined in both the sediment and the supernatant. The entrapment capacity was calculated as follows, [(T2C) /T] 100, where T is the total amount of drug that is detected both in the supernatant and sediment, and C is the amount of drug detected only in the supernatant. In vitro permeation study Preparation of cadaver skin Skin samples provided from Government Medical College and Hospital, Aurangabad. Obtain from breast reduction operation and subcutaneous fat was carefully trimmed and then rinse with normal saline, prepared skin was warped in aluminium foil and stored at -200c until use. (15) Procedure Invitro skin permeation studies were performed on a Franz diffusion cell with an effective diffusional area 0.785 cm2 and having receptor compartment volume of 15ml. The skin was brought to room temp and mounted with the donor compartment dry and open to the atmosphere. Initially, the donor compartment was empty and receiver compartment was filled with phosphate buffer ph 7.4. The receiver fluid was stirred with magnetic bead with the speed of 100rpm and the temperature was maintained at 371. The phosphate buffer pH 7.4 was replaced with the fresh one at every 30 min to stabilize the skin. It was found that the receiver solution should a negligible peak area after 3hr and beyond indicating complete stabilisation of skin. 5ml ethosomes formulation was placed into the donor compartment and sealed with paraffin film to provide occlusive condition. The sample where withdraw at regular interval for 10 hrs filtered through 0.45 . membrane filter and analysed for drug amount by UV-Visible s pectrophotometer at 294 nm. Permeation data analysis The cumulative amount of penetrant, Q (g/cm2), which permeated the skin per unit surface area was plotted against time. The linear portion of the plot was taken as being the steady-state flux, (Js). The permeability coefficient (Kp) was calculated as: Kp = Js/Cv Where Cv is the concentration of penetrant in the donor solution. Vesicle stability evaluation: Stability of optimised ethosomes formulation was kept at room temp for 4 weeks. The measurement where conducted on of ethosomes that. Vesicle size, polydispersity index and zeta potential was measured at 1, 2, 3, 7, 14 and 21 days mean value where used for the analysed of the data. 2.5. In vivo Pharmacodynamic study Approval to carry out pharmacodynamics studies was obtained (Institutional Animals Ethical Committee, approved the protocol). Forced Swim test (FST) and Locomotor Activity test (LAT) was used to evaluate antidepressant effect of the optimized F2 formulation. Rats of either sex weighing 250–300 g were kept under standard laboratory conditions (temperature 23-30oc).The rats were kept with free access to standard laboratory diet. Approximately 14 cm2 of abdominal side of rats skin was shaved on the in each group except group treated with marketed tablet formulation. Rats were divided randomly into three groups each containing six animals. Group -1 was considered as a control. Group-2 was treated with oral tablet of PXH containing 1.40 mg/day and administered without anaesthesia by using simple poly-ethylene tube. Group-3 was treated with optimized F2 formulation applied transdermally containing 2 mg/day (equivalent to 0.60 mg/day) drug. 2.5.1. Force swim test Rats were forced to swim in cylindrical glass tank (60 cm height X 30 cm in diameter) containing water after the administration of doses. Water was filled up to 40 cm height so they were swim without touching their hind limb or tail to bottom of the tank. On the 1st day of experiments, rats were forced to swim for 10 min. After 24 h, rats were re-exposed to forced swim for 5 min and animals were judged for immobility, climbing, and swimming. After a 5-min swim test, the rat was removed from the cylinder, dried and then returned to its home cage [29]. Porsolt, R.D., Bertin, A., Jalfre M. (1977). Behavioral despair in mice: a primary screening test for antidepressants. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther. 229, 327–336. 2.5.2. Locomotor activity Hyperactivity, functional roles of specific neurobiological and drugs potential psycho activity were discriminate by the locomotor activity study [30]. Locomotor activity was measured in the open-field test. The apparatus consisted of a square arena (200Ãâ€"200 cm), with a 50 cm height. The floor was divided into 30 equal squares. Animals were individually positioned in the centre of the arena and the activity was measured over 5 min. The open field was cleaned with isopropyl alcohol solution before behavioural testing to avoid possible bias due to odours and/or residues left by rats tested earlier. Also after each 3 animals apparatus was cleaned [31]. Result and discussion Vesicle size, polydispersity index and zeta potential: The vesicle mean diameters for all formulation are shown in Table 2. The result of photon correlation spectroscopy shows narrow peak for all formulation, which indicating that size of vesicle population is comparatively uniform in size. In accordance with other researcher, this decrease in the mean diameter of vesicle is due to the presence of ethanol (touitou et al., 2000). Higher concentration of ethanol produced lower vesicle size. Probably the ethanol causes the modification of the net charge of the system and confer it some degree of stearic stabilization that may finally lead to decrease in mean particle size (lasic et al., 1998). In the formulation the concentration of ethanol increases from 30-35% the significant decrease in vesicle size. On the other hand, it was observed that the increase in soya lecithin concentration resulted in increase in mean particle size. Small vesicle size is formed with the F2 formulation having a 1% of soya lecithin and 35% ethanol. Twice fold inc rease in soya lecithin concentration (1%-2%) resulted in two fold increase in ethosomes size (from 500nm- ). The charge of vesicles is important parameter that can influence both stability and skin vesicle interaction. Zeta potential value of all formulations shown in Table 2. The concentration of ethanol increase from 30-35% v/v resulting in increase in zeta potential values. Polydispersity index was determined as measure of homogeneity in formulation. Polydispersity index ≠¤ 0.3 indicate homogeneous population of ethosome vesicle in formulation. Polydispersity of all formulation shown in Table 2. Compare to all formulation F2 formulation showed less polydispersity index is 0.23 indicates homogeneous population of ethosome vesicles. Entrapment efficiency Entrapment efficiency of all formulation shown in Table 2. Entrapment efficiency of formulation containing of 1% soya lecithin and 30% (F1) ethanol was found to be 60%, which significantly increased to 64% when the amount of ethanol increases to 35% (F2) keeping the concentration of soya lecithin constant. Ethosomes formulation prepared with 1.5% soya lecithin and 30% ethanol (F3) exhibited 40% entrapment efficiency, which was increased to 45% (F4) respectively; keep the amount of soya lecithin constant. Formulation prepared with 2% soya lecithin and 30% ethanol (F5) showed 42% entrapment efficiency, which was increased to 61% when the concentration of ethanol increased to 35%(F6) respectively. These data supported by previous finding that solubility and high encapsulation efficiency values for large range of lipophilic drugs can be obtain due to presence of ethanol (13).From these results entrapment efficiency of formulation was observed due to increase in ethanol concentration. Invitro permeation study In vitro skin permeation experiment was performed using human cadaver skin showed that permeation was highest in F2 formulation as shown in Fig 1. Flux value of F2 formulation was significantly different when compared with other formulation (P≠¤0.05) as shown in Table 3. Highest flux value (-) of F2 as compared to other formulation. These may be due to small vesicle size and high entrapment efficiency alone with high concentration of ethanol. These data supported by previous finding that ethanol interact with a lipid molecules of stratum corneum, resulting in reduction in the Tm of stratum corneum, increase in there fluidity. The intercalation of ethanol due to polar head group environment can result in increase in membrane permeability (16). It can also suggest that mixing of phospholipids with the stratum corneum lipid of the intercellular layers enhances the permeability of the skin (17). F2 formulation was selected as a optimized formulation from the vesicle size distributio n, polydispersity index, zeta potential, drug entrapment efficiency, and in vitro permeation study results and considered for further study. In vivo Pharmacodynamic study Pharmacodynamic activity of ethosomes F2 formulation was compared with orally administered dose. Pharmacodynamic activity involved two tests. One was force swim test and other was locomotor activity. Force swim test is most widely used model for assessing the antidepressant activity. Total immobility period would decrease if high concentration of paroxetine hydrochloride reached target site. Force swim test Results of FST confirmed that there was significant reduction in total immobility period in seconds by treating the rats by transdermal ethosomal F2 formulation. There was significant (p Table 3. Results of forced swim test. Conclusion: Ethosomal vesicles with appropriate size and maximum drug entrapment efficiency can be prepared. F2 formulation showed highest transdermal flux across human skin was composed of 1% soya lecithin, 35% ethanol and 2% cholesterol. In vivo pharmacodyanamic study of optimised formulation showed significant values compared to controlled group. Therefore, it can be concluded from the result of the study that ethosome formulation is potentially useful carrier for transdermal delivery of paroxetine hydrochloride REFERANCES O. Braun-Falco, H.C. Kortung, H.I. Maibach (Eds.), Grieswith bach Conference: Liposome Dermatics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1992. E. Touitou, H.E. Junginger, N.D. Weiner, M. Mezei, Lipo somes as carriers for topical and transdermal delivery, J.Pharm. Sci. 9 (1992) 1189–1203. Hollister L E. Norwalk, Connecticut: Appleton Lange; 1995. A Lange Medical Book: Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. 448–59. Kilts CD. Potential New Drug Delivery Systems for Antidepressants: An overview. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003; 64:31–3. Frampton JE and Plosker GL. Selegiline transdermal system: in the treatment of major depressive disorder: Profile report. CNS Drugs. 2007; 21:521–24. Singh G, Ghosh B, Kaushalkumar D and Somsekhar V. Screening of venlafaxine hydrochloride for transdermal delivery: passive diffusion and iontophoresis. AAPS Pharm Sci Tech. 2008; 9:791–797. Touitou E. Compositions for applying active substances to or through the skin. US Patent 5 540 934, 1996. Touitou E, Composition for applying active substances to or through the skin. US Patent 5 716 638, 1998. Touitou E, Alkabes M, Dayan N, Eliaz M. Ethosomes: novel vesicular carriers for enhanced skin delivery. Pharm Res 1997; 14: S-305. Touitou E, Dayan N, Bergelson L, Godin B, EliazM.Ethosomes*novel vesicular carriers for enhanced delivery: characterizationand skin penetration properties. J Control Rel 2000; 65:403}18. Touitou E, Dayan N, Bergelson L, Godin B, Eliaz M. Ethosomes *novel vesicular carriers for enhanced delivery: characterization and skin penetration properties. J Control Rel 2000;65: 403}18. M.M.A. Elsayed, O.Y. Abdallah, V.F. Naggar, N.M. Khalafallah, Deformable liposomes and ethosomes as carriers for skin delivery of ketotifen, Pharmazie 62 (2007) 133–137. Heeremans JLM, Gerristen HR, Meusen SP, Mijuheer FW, Panday GRS, Prevost R, Kluft C, Crommelin DJA. The preparation of tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) containing liposomes: entrapment effciency and ultracentrifugation damage. J Drug Target 1995; 3:301-310. Fang, J,V., Sung, K.C., Lin, H. H., Fang, C.L.(1999) transdermal iontophoretic Delivery of diclofenac sodium from various polymer formulation: Invitro and Invivo studies. Int. J. Pharm. 19 178; 83-92. Nava Dayan., Elka Touitou. (2000) Carrier for skin delivery of trihexphenidyl HCL:ethosomes vs. Liposomes: biomatererials 21( 2000) 1879-1885. A. Blume, M. Jansen, M. Ghyczy, J. Gareis, Interaction of phospholipid liposomes with lipid model mixtures forstratum corneum lipids, Int. J. Pharm. 99 (1993) 219–220. Formulation of ethosome: Table- 1 Evaluation of ethosome:

Essay --

Cousin Kate is a poem about a young woman who is seduced by a Lord. He soon ensnares her and marries her cousin Kate instead, leaving behind a broken-hearted cottage maiden. The maiden is soon classed as a fallen woman and is treated like an outcast in society. She is bitter and jealous of her cousin but soon reveals that she has the one thing her cousin does not and desperately wants: a son and replacement to the Lord. The poem begins by saying ‘I was a cottage maiden’. It is a simple beginning, talking in the past tense. She tells us she is lower class person. It later says she is ‘Hardened by sun and air’ this shows that the cottage maiden is strong and worked outside on land and it also suggests by the use of the words â€Å"contented with my cottage mates† that she was happy and a sense of community . Then it says ‘why did a great lord find me out,’ this tells us that the lord has been chasing after her and she has been caught by him. In this stanza there is a question asked to the question reveals that the girl is puzzled about the lord is after her. This suggests that she is aware that he has different motives rather than love and romance. This also shows that she knows the compliment is false and just a way of seducing her into bed. The second stanza is where the great lord isn’t so â€Å"great† anymore. He lured and tricked her into going to his palace home. She then saw another life. Life without working and cleaning; however, the lord doesn’t take her seriously. He doesn’t feel like he has too as they are not married. â€Å"He wore me like a silken knot† is a simile which defines how he used her in his own way. He just wanted her as an accessory. â€Å"He changed me like a glove† this quote is also a simile which outlines h... ...fair haired son, my shame, my pride† We are told she has a son, and that not only is it a memory of her shame but he is her pride. He’s all she has. Then the last three lines on stanza six are switched. The narrator is now talking to her son, her pride. â€Å"Your father would give lands for one† she is telling her son that if his father really wanted to, he would take him and would leave her (the narrator) with nothing. In conclusion, â€Å"Cousin Kate† is an extremely complicated poem, and even though there’s hate and heartbreak throughout, she ends up with pride. The narrator let the lord control her, power over her and make her what he wanted; however, Cousin Kate didn’t. She would only let him have sex with her if she could still be pure; this means that she would have to be married to do so. This probably made the lord have massive respect for Kate and not the narrator.

Pompeii: Life and Death Essay

It took only 19 hours, not even a full day. That was all the time it needed on August 24, 70 A. D. to bury Pompeii (Rosella Lorenzi). Mount Vesuvius, south of Pompeii and the cities of Herculaneum and Stabiae (Encarta) erupted, releasing tons of volcanic debris, pumice, ash, and sulfuric gas reaching several miles into the air (Eyewitness to History). The ensuing â€Å"firestorm† of lethal gases and red hot volcanic debris overwhelmed the neighboring communities that suffocated the residents of the cities beside Pompeii, namely Herculaneum and Stabiae (Eyewitness). Tons of debris falling from the skies began to fill the streets (Eyewitness). The eruption of Vesuvius effectively annihilated the town (Mummy Tombs). The volcanic ash and debris rained on the town for 18 or so hours, reaching heights of 8 to 10 feet (Mummy Tombs). After the explosion and the rain of debris, the event was followed by nuee ardente, extremely hot gas that engulfed Pompeii in six deadly waves (Mummy Tombs). What happened to Pompeii and the neighboring towns? History of Pompeii Pompeii was situated in the mouth of the present-day Sarno River (Encarta). Oscans in 600 BC , who were later conqured by the Samnites (Encarta). Lucius Cornelius Sulla, the Roman dictator, made Pompeii into a Roman colony in the year 80 BC (Encarta). Pompeii later developed into a resort town for the enjoyment of wealthy Romans (Encarta). Romans belonging to the upper echelons of the Roman government enjoyed the pleasures of the resort town nestled in their villas surrounding the Bay of Naples (Smatch). At the beginning of the Christian period in history, Pompeii reached a population of about 20,000 people (Encarta). Aside from the wealthy and middle class Romans who enjoyed the worldly pleasures of the city, there was a larger than usual number of slaves and freemen (Smatch). They were the ones who took care of the needs of the vacationing Romans and other travellers, tourists and others who would indulge in the pleasures that the city had to offer (Smatch). Aside from the pleasures that the city rolled out for the travellers and tourists, the city was also an important trade destination and route (Encarta). The region’s natural resources had allowed Campania to develop its trade and raise their living standards (Minnesota State University Mankato). The shoreline surrounding the Gulf of Naples soon became the address of the country residences of members of the aristocracy of the Roman Empire (Minnesota). As the city became more wealthy, they developed their luxury service sector, enhanced their trade with other states, and enhanced their agriculture (Minnesota). It would look as if Pompeii was firmly established in the life of the Roman Empire (Minnesota). Or was it just the window to disaster? Signs of the impending disaster The citizens of Pompeii had no idea that Vesuvius carried with it the death of the town (Professor Andrew Wadrice-Hadrill). The Romans had an extreme interest in the prediction of the future (Wadrice-Hadrill). They prided themselves in being able to tell the times that the gods were going to unleash their wrath on them, and used the signs, such as strange occurences and births, to determine these things (Wadrice- Hadrill). But even with these as references, Vesuvius still gave out no warning signs (Wadrice- Hadrill). Even though Mount Vesuvius had once been active, the volcano remained dormant for the most part of human memory for the residents of Pompeii and the outlying communities (Minnesota). Since there was no recorded incident that the volcano was destructive, the residents didn’t realize the danger that was about to befall the town (Minnesota). The city was rocked by an earthquake on the 5th of February , AD 62 (Minnesota). The quake began as the residents heard what they describes as a prolonged, subdued roar that shook the area; nobody could tell the origin or even identify what it was (Minnesota). Soon after, the buildings began to shake and collapse, and the people ran into the streets (Minnesota). The people ran from the towns thinking that they will be safe from the falling debris (Minnesota). But they fell into the deep cracks that the eruption opened up in the earth (Minnesota). Adding to the chaos was the flooding caused by the bursting of the town’s reservior (Minnesota). Though the quake proved fatal, it did not last long; it was followed by another quake after an hour (Minnesota). The tremors occurred throughout the rest of the day, until the evening hours (Minnesota). Earthquakes by themselves were taken to be omens of things to come (Wadrice- Hadrill). Roman historian Cassius Dio wrote that he observed the presence of giants running on the land on numerous occasions (Wadrice-Hadrill). This observation of Dio carried an ominous sign for the town, because according to the Romans, the volacanoes in the southern part of the Italian peninsula was the burial place of some rebellious giants that were defeated by the gods (Wadrice Hadrill). It was the giant’s movements that bought about these eruptions (Wadrice Hadrill). The destruction of Pompeii After the destruction of Pompeii caused by the earthquake in AD 62, the people spent seventeen years repairing the damage wrought upon their town (Minnesota). It was their intent to make their town even more beautiful than it was before the tremor (Minnesota). As the citizens of the region rebuilt their towns, trade began once again to flourish and they became wealthy again (Minnesota). As the life of those living in Pompeii and the outlying communities unfolded, they did not have any sense of the impending catastrophe waiting to explode on their city. The wrath of the gods The beginning of the end for Pompeii began on the 24th of August of 79AD (Minnesota). There were small upheavals of the ground, but since the tremors were so small and insignificant, hardly anyone gave them a second notice (Minnesota). Springs and other sources of drinking water for the people dried up, an ominous sign that indicated the anger of the gods (Minnesota). Other signs of the impending destruction soon followed the omens. On the 20th of August, cracks had began to appear on the surface of the land, accompanied by rumblings (Minnesota). The calm sea of the Gulf gave way to high waves. Livestock-horses, cattle and even birds- all of them became uneasy and restless, as if they could sense the disaster about to befall the town (Minnesota). In the morning hours of August 24, 79 AD, Vesuvius detonated with such violent force (Minnesota). Mud, smoke and poisonous fumes rumbled down the mountain, sending a deluge of ash and red hot rocks on the countryside (Minnesota). Farms situated on the slopes of the erupting giant were obliterated, as well as some plantations and homes of wealthy Romans (Minnesota). Acrid fumes that came with the volcanic debris further contributed to the chaos that reigned during the eruption (Minnesota). These fumes made the residents of Pompeii to suffer from delusions, then asphyxiated them causing to be suffocated and die (Minnesota). Others chose just to lock themselves in their rooms, while others tried to flee the anarchy with their beasts of burden (Minnesota). Some that chose to stay, thinking that the structures in the towns such as buildings and the like would support the rain of ash and debris, but would eventually be killed by the same structures they had sought refuge (Minnesota). Others would be overcome by the stench from the gases, while others would die getting buried in the falling ash (Minnesota). And the volume of the ash that fell on the town of Pompeii was truly enormous (Smatch). Pompeii, situated about eight kilometers south from the volcano, was entombed in about 3 meters deep of ashfall (Smatch). But thicker pyroclastic deposits would destroy the towns of Herculaneum and Stabiae, buried under 20 meters of volcanic ash and debris (Smatch). Pieces of volcanic debris called tephra flew to around 70 miles of the site, and other debris were found hundreds of miles farther out (Smatch). Even some in Rome claimed to have seen the column of smoke from the eruption, and even heard the rumblings from the volcano (Smatch). Modern day scientists have estimated the volume of the pyroclastic debris that was ejected from Vesuvius to be four cubic kilomters (Smatch). Among the dead in the destruction of Pompeii was Pliny the Elder, author of the book Natural History (Smatch). Pliny the Elder had been given the command of the resort town as a gift (Smatch). He died trying to rescue the people caught in the eruption of the volcano, as the account of his nephew, Pliny the Younger, would bear out (Smatch). Lines of communication to the stricken town had been cut, but there was evidence of some rescue attempts made (Smatch). Imprints of Roman sandals were engraved on the top ashfall layers testifies that there were rescue attempts, theoritically attributed to the Roman garrisons that had survived the eruption (Smatch). The fleet of the Roman Empire stationed at Misenum had been dispatched to Pompeii by Pliny the Elder to assist in the evacuation efforts at Pompeii and the surrounding areas (Awesome Stories). The elder Pliny, who commanded the fleet, sent the ships for the rescue effort while he personally directed efforts at Stabiae (Awesome Stories). This is where he met his death on August 24, falling to a heart attack (Awesome Stories). All in all, the death toll of the eruption of Vesuvius, was a staggering 16,000 people, including 2,000 in Pompeii (Awesome Stories). Uncovering the past Pompeii had lain silent under the debris for at least 1500 years (Encarta). In 1748, efforts were undertaken to discover the anicient community, entombed under 3 meters of ash, frozen in limbo in the acount of Pliny the Younger (Lorenzi). German archaelogist Johann Joachim Winkelmann imparted the importance of the discoveries to the world (Encarta). What was remarkable about the discoveries of the remains of Pompeii was the degree of preservation of artifacts in the ruins (Encarta). The ash fall that engulfed the town basically produced an envelope around the town, sealing the town from the decay of the elements, shielding the artifacts, structures, buildings, temples, shops, baths and houses (Encarta). Some of the discoveries in the town included the remains of the 2000 people believed to be left in the rescue efforts, including Roman gladiators that were left tied to stop them form escaping or killing themselves (Encarta). The ashes, that were mixed with rainfall, had remained on the bodies of the people, forming molds around the remains after the bodies had turned to dust (Encarta). These hollow spaces were filled out and were molded around the bodies of those killed in the eruption (Encarta). These molds were preserved and put on display at the Porta Marina Museum (Encarta). These were formed by the air space left over when the human remains of the victims turned to ash, and the excavators poured in liquid plaster into the air spaces, since the air spaces left an imprint of the body that was encapsulated in the ash (Mummy Tombs). These â€Å"plaster mummies† gave an image of the debacle that befell Pompeii and the surrounding areas (Mummy Tombs). Aside from the remains that framed the tragedy of the people in Pompeii, the ruins gave a striking and vivid insight into the daily life of the Romans in the day (Eyewitness). As many of the residents of Pompeii had escaped the tragedy, they carried with them anything that was readily movable (Encarta). After the eruption, these residents came back and dug tunnels through the ash around the houses and the structures in the town, removing even slabs of marble on the pillars and walls (Encarta). Save for these things, what was left of the town, some of the wall paintings and the frescos left in the city have been taken from the site and housed in the National Museum located in Naples (Encarta). If pieced together, the structures, buildings and what was left of the movable items gave students of history a thorough and complete picture of the daily life in an Italian city in the provinces of the Roman Empire during the 1st century AD (Encarta). The structures that remained standing gave historians valuable information on the study of the architectural designs of the Romans (Encarta). These buildings and other standing structures gave a framework of the transition of a Greek style of building to the methods that the Romans used in building their edifices (Encarta). Many people assumed, as discused earlier in the paper, that the people in Pompeii had been killed by suffocation (Lorenzi). But research focusing on the fractures and the position of the bodies of the victims suggest another horrific way of death for them (Lorenzi). Research on the bodies in Pompeii suggest that they may have been killed almost instantly from the â€Å"thermal surges† that roared down the beach area with such velocity that it covered the distance of seven miles all the way to the coast in just about four minutes (Lorenzi). This occurred in the second and possibly third phases of the eruption (Smatch). The first part of the eruption included the primary ejection of the volcano of several meters of what is called â€Å"inflated pumice† on the town (Smatch). Inflated pumice are glass-like fragments expanded by the gases and volcanic steam (Smatch). The second and third waves of the eruption happened either when the vent of the volcano widened or the volatility level of the material had diminshed (Smatch). At this time, the plume of the cloud, 33 kilometers high, imploded and the material it carried rushed down the slopes with newly acquired hot gases and pyroclastic materials (Smatch). Searing surges, some as hot as 500 degrees centigrade, swooped over the towns (Smatch). These surges literally flattened everything surrounding the volcano and its neighboring areas, killing off evertything that ran against its path- humans, livestock and plant life (Smatch). The town of Herculaneum, though to be buried under the layers by lehars or mudflows coming from the volcano after an eruption, was in reality entombed by these pyroclastic flows (Smatch). The primary head of the flow covered the distance from the summit to the town in just under four minutes, a distance of 6 kilometers (Smatch). The third phase of the eruption began the encapsulation of the entire area with a light and finer area of a thick layer of volcanic ash, known as tuff (Smatch). Excavation of the site The fate of Pompeii had lingered around for many centuries, but no serious undertaking had been done to excavate the ruins (Dr. Salvatore Ciro Nappo). But the exploration and discovery of Pompeii began in earnest in an area called â€Å"Civita† in the year 1748 (Ciro Nappo). In the first stage of the of the work, the main goal was the discovery of items of art for the private art trove of Charles III, who reigned from 1759 to 1788 (Ciro Nappo). These artifacts were removed from the site and hauled off to Naples, where they are presently housed in the National Museum (Ciro Nappo). Other paintings and art works from the site were either lost or stripped from their placings on the walls and then framed (Ciro Nappo). Still other items were lost due to irreparability or to damage (Ciro Nappo). After the ransacking of the site, structures such as the Villa de Cicerone and the Villa di Giulia Felice were the next targets, but some scholars, such as the German Winckelmann, strongly countered the move, as they had done against the previous decimation (Ciro Nappo). Because of the pressure they bought to bear against the initiative, the policy was put to a halt in some ways, although the wall paintings were still being stripped (Ciro Nappo). By the turn of the century, twin areas had been unearthed: the Quartiere dei Teatri and the Via delle Tombbe and the Villa di Diomede (Ciro Nappo). Karl Weber and Francisco La Vega were the archaelogists with the most involvement in this part of the excavatioon (Ciro Nappo). They wrote extensive diary notes on the progress of their work and the designs of the structures that they uncovered (Ciro Nappo). Then the territory came under the control of the French (Ciro Nappo). It was during this period in the chronology of the excavation that the methodogy used in the excavation took a new turn (Ciro Nappo). During this time, the excavation became more standardized, and itineraries were made for visits of scholars and other important people to the work site (Ciro Nappo). The French had wanted to make a systematic way for unearthing the site, progressing from the east to the wset of the dig site (Ciro Nappo). At one point of their work on the site, they had in their employ as many as 1500 laborers, resulting in a large scale excavation of the buried town, as the Foro, the Casa di Pansa, Casa di Sallustio and the Casa del Chrirurgo were all unearthed (Ciro Nappo). In 1863, Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the Pompeii excavations from 1863 to 1875 (Ciro Nappo). Fiorelli imposed a new method for the direction of the excavation work. Instead of the current method of unearthing the streets as the first step in the work, Fiorelli directed that the work begin from the top going down to the streets of the town (Ciro Nappo). What he wanted to do was enforce a new system of preserving the artifacts that were discovered as the group worked its way down to the streets of the town (Ciro Nappo). With the information accumulated in the excavation, the data could be utilized in the restoration and rebuilding of the structures as well as their interiors (Ciro Nappo). Fiorelli also devised the plans to make use of the plaster molds to restore the forms of the plant life and the human remains that had been enveloped in the downfall of the volcanic ash (Ciro Nappo). These plaster mummies, as earlier discussed, were formed as the bodies of the victims underwent declension, or turned into dust after centuries of being trapped in the ash (Mummy Tombs). The â€Å" holes†, as they were termed, were filled by plaster, allowing the molds to render the forms of the bodies entombed in the ash (Mummy Tombs). The plaster casts of the bodies were discovered in several areas of the excavation site, among them the Garden of the Fugitives, the Stabian Thermal Baths, the Horrea and the Forum, and the Macellum (Mummy Tombs). At present, at least 44 of the town’s 66 hectares have been uncovered, and the remaining 22 hectares of the town has been determined off limits to excavation (Ciro Nappo). This was decided upon as to preserve this area for the future generations to discover (Ciro Nappo). To date, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius is still ranked as among the most lethal volcanic incidents in history (Awesome Stories). Vesuvius is a graphic reminder of how virulent and dangerous volcanoes can be (Christopher Joyce).

Stefan’s Diaries: The Craving Chapter 21

Damon and I remained in the cell for several minutes after the man left, too stunned to even contemplate escaping. The guards didn't come back in with the keys. I didn't blame them. I cursed, slamming the bars. It seemed that no matter what I decided to do, which way I turned, things got worse. And the Sutherlands†¦ they had just been innocent bystanders, swept up in the path of destruction just because they were at the wrong place at the wrong time. While my brother didn't actively cause their deaths, he was no less responsible. I turned on him, ready to tear him apart. And then I saw the look on his face. Damon's eyes had glazed over and he leaned against the wall for support. He'd worn the same dazed expression for weeks after he'd woken up as a vampire and discovered that Katherine was dead. â€Å"What was that?† he whispered, finally looking at me. But I had no idea what that was. All I knew was that it was more powerful, more dangerous, more deadly than any creature I'd ever encountered. Anger at my brother drained away and something like exhaustion set in. â€Å"I'm not sure, though I think he left me a message,† I said, remembering the bloody scrawl on the side of the Sutherlands' home. â€Å"But what was that about Katherine? What was he to her?† Damon shrugged. â€Å"I have no idea. She never told me about that†¦ thing.† â€Å"He said we took her from him. What the hell does that mean? What curse is he talking about? Did Emily cast a spell on someone?† I said. I began to pace, my mind racing. â€Å"I'm guessing it means he believes we killed her. Which you did, brother,† Damon said. In a pique, Damon sat down, stretched his legs out, and put his hands behind his head, pillowing it against the stone. I would get no more answers out of him. I slid down against the bars and buried my head in my hands, thinking of my time with Katherine. Had she ever said anything about her past? Let anything slip? But I had been so completely under her thrall that it was impossible to know what had been real and what she had compelled me to believe. Though I remembered biting her, I didn't have any memory of her feeding me her blood. But she must have often, as I had enough of her blood in my system to come back as a vampire after my father shot me. In a funny way, Katherine had made me. We were almost like her children. My mind snagged. â€Å"Did Katherine ever tell you about her sire?† I asked, putting words to a horrible thought forming in my mind. â€Å"The vampire who made her?† Damon looked up at me, shocked out of his sulk. â€Å"You think†¦ ?† I nodded. Damon leaned back and knocked his head against the wall. He had been genuinely in love with Katherine. I wondered if meeting Katherine's maker made our little tryst in Mystic Falls seem like a speck in the vastness of eternity. â€Å"I suppose we should call a guard over and compel him to free us,† he said tiredly. A sound of commotion from the lobby stopped us. There were muffled thuds, like bodies hitting the floor. There was a scream. It was high-pitched and hard to tell whether it came from a woman or a man, so great was the pain. Then came the grating sound of a desk being moved, and what might have been a wooden chair being shattered against the wall. I stood. So did Damon. Damon and I glanced at each other. The pocket watch Winfield had given me ticked loudly in the sudden silence. The door to the stockade opened once again and in came a girl wearing men's trousers and black suspenders, a long blond braid over her shoulder. â€Å"Lexi!† I gasped. â€Å"I'm growing tired of bailing you boys out,† she said as she shook the key at us. â€Å"I should leave you in there overnight, teach you a lesson about making trouble,† she joked. I reached through the bars to grab her free hand. â€Å"I've never been happier to see anyone.† â€Å"I don't doubt it,† Lexi said drily, but a small smile curved the edges of her lips. Damon rolled his eyes. â€Å"We were just about to free ourselves, thank you very much.† â€Å"I don't doubt that, either. Just figured I'd speed up the escape,† she said. Her nose twitched, and her flat tone indicated she didn't entirely approve of his existence. The last time she'd seen him, he'd just gotten through killing Callie and was starting in on me. â€Å"So did you knock out the entire precinct?† Damon asked, straightening the shoulders of his jacket. Lexi undid the final lock on the door. The door sprang open and I rushed to hug her. â€Å"No, only some of them. The rest I compelled. Some of us don't like needless violence – or messes that need to be explained later,† she said into my shoulder. I released her and she motioned us toward the door. â€Å"Now let's get out of here before anyone else shows up.† â€Å"I always cover my tracks,† Damon said defensively as we rushed through the door of the containment area and into the front offices. Several policemen sat at their desks, poring over ledgers, oblivious to the two prisoners escaping and the general state of disarray. Desks had been pushed aside, among the splintery remains of what had once been a chair, and the man who had sat there was lying on the floor, a rivulet of blood leaking from his head. But his eyes were open and he appeared to be whispering some word over and over again. â€Å"Strong-willed, that one,† Lexi said. â€Å"How were you able to find us?† I asked, following her down the stairs. â€Å"A mysterious Italian count with black hair and ice-blue eyes and a flair for the dramatic sweeps into the New York social scene and very quickly marries the most eligible society girl?† she said, rolling her eyes. â€Å"They ran your picture in the social pages.† Damon at least had the grace to look sheepish. â€Å"I always cover my tracks,† she mimicked. â€Å"There are a lot of ways to live rich and powerfully as a vampire†¦ none of which involve sweeping into the New York social scene†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"†¦ and marrying the most eligible society girl. Fair enough,† Damon conceded. â€Å"At least I did it with style.† We exited the prison, and the cold evening air washed over me. The stars were just beginning to flicker in the night sky, and the gaslights cast a warm glow over the street. It was a beautiful night, the like of which Bridget, Lydia, Winfield, and Mrs. Sutherland would never enjoy again – all because of me, Damon, and Katherine. I only came to New York to escape. Escape Damon, memories of Callie, vampires, Mystic Falls, Katherine†¦ and yet it all still followed me like an onerous shadow. I knew then that I'd never escape my past, not fully. Such dark things don't fade with time – they merely reverberate through the centuries. I could only hope that Margaret was safe somewhere, away from the hell-beast that had violently murdered her entire family.